(CAZRI) was established in 1959 under the Indian Council of Agricultural. Bisaria 1999). Leucaena trees are trimmed back twice a year to obtain fod- der and fuelwood. In an experiment, grain yield of black gram under aonla and subabul. Crop by 2001 (Statistical Abstract 2001) and average yields are 800 kg ha–1. Of Industrial Policy & Promotion, Department of Consumer Affairs, Foreign Investment Promotion. Board, the Forward Market Commission and SEBI. Non-compliance of the conditions of Press Note 2(2008) after 30.6.2009 would be a violation of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. (Gopal Krishna).

This is an open access paper. We use the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license - The license permits any user to download, print out, extract, archive, and distribute the article, so long as appropriate credit is given to the authors and source of the work. The license ensures that the published article will be as widely available as possible and that the article can be included in any scientific archive. Open Access authors retain the copyrights of their papers. Open access is a property of individual works, not necessarily journals or publishers. This paper reports case studies in eastern Madhya Pradesh – a central Indian province – on community adaptation strategies for sustainable livelihood options. With about 90% of the region being rain-fed, erratic rainfalls in the last fifteen years have caused up to a 60% decrease in crop yields, directly impacting the food security of the region.

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and horticultural expansion are adaptation measures for tackling climate change. The expansion of kitchen gardens from subsistence-level to commercial-level is another significant development in the region. Meanwhile, increased pressure on common lands has caused fuelwood scarcity for households and decreased livestock fodder. While output of most non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has reduced drastically due to unsustainable extraction, production of mahua ( Madhuca indica) has not suffered as much, thanks to a community-managed user regime. Community-based institutions have the potential to support the ecosystem-based livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. India's economy grew by over 9 percent annually during 2003–04 to 2007–08, and by 8.6 percent during 2010–11 [].

However, based on per capita total consumer expenditure, 28.3% of India's rural population remains below the poverty line []. This impoverished demographic is concentrated in the states of Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh []. These states are characterized by low literacy levels and strong dependence upon natural resources. Poverty is widely prevalent in tribal-dominated areas and among scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. These communities are often highly dependent on local natural resources such as forests, hence are far more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change than urbanised parts of the country [, ].

With carbon dioxide concentration doubling from pre-Industrial Revolution levels, India's climate could become warmer by 2.33 to 4.78°C during the twenty-first century []. A warmer climate would be accompanied by greater precipitation for India overall, but there would be considerable geographic variation in the magnitude of change for both temperature and rainfall []. While temperatures across all of India are expected to increase, some places may become wetter while others become drier []. India's climate change projection scenarios predict little change in monsoon rainfall until the 2050s [], followed by a 15–40% increase in rainfall by the end of 21st century []. An increase in monsoon rainfall intensity was also suggested by recent research studies [, ]. However, contradictory results [, ] suggest substantial uncertainty in predictions of future annual precipitation in India.

Climate change can affect forests by causing shifts in vegetation types and altering the frequency, intensity, duration, and timing of fire, drought, insect and pathogen outbreaks [, ]. Changes in the climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration also affect forest structure [, ] and species composition [–], as these conditions determine the ecological niches within which different organisms can thrive and the amount of primary productivity that can be sustained [, ] by the ecosystem.

Climate change may alter the productivity of forests, causing a shift in resource management, adaptation, and ultimately forest production at both national and regional levels [, ]. Forests also play an important role in global hydrological cycles, affecting rainfall patterns and temperature regimes []. Hence, the alteration of forest function by climate change may have reinforcing feedback effects.

About 100 million people living in and around forests in India derive their livelihood from the collection and marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) []. Changes in forestry could have profound implications for biodiversity, traditional livelihoods, industry, soil and water resources, and hence, agricultural productivity [, ]. Moreover, climate change-induced effects will aggravate existing stresses attributable to non-climate factors, such as land-use changes and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources [].

Highly climate sensitive, Indian agriculture, 65 per cent of which is in rainfed areas, contributes nearly 25 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employs 65 per cent of the total workforce, and accounts for 13.3 per cent of total exports together with allied activities (allied activities include tea, coffee, cereals, unmanufactured tobacco, spices, cashew nuts, oil meals, fruits & vegetables, marine products, and raw cotton) []. Indian agriculture is considered especially vulnerable to warming temperatures in the coming decades, though not necessarily uniformly across the country [, ]. Indian agronomic studies suggest that extensive warming could cause significant reductions in yields in the absence of adaptation and carbon fertilization []. If temperatures rise by 4 °C in India, grain yields (i.e., rice, wheat, coarse grains, and protein feed) could collectively fall by 25–40 percent [], with rice yields declining by 15–25 percent, and wheat yields by 30–35 percent []. Studies suggest five ways to reduce the impact of climate change on agriculture: altering sowing period; switching to crops which are less sensitive to climate change; switching to new drought/heat resistant varieties; conversion from rain-fed to irrigated cultivation; and increasing the intensity of irrigation [–].

This paper focuses on (a) micro-level steps taken by tribal communities to tackle climate change; (b) small but significant success realized by tribals and the lessons learned thereby; and (c) the role of institutions in tackling the challenge of climate change. The objective of this paper is to document the linkages between tribal livelihoods and climate-induced changes within the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. First, I briefly review recent rainfall data for central India, and then present an overview of the study area and tools employed for data collection. Major findings on agriculture, livestock, NTFPs, and alternate livelihoods are presented in the subsequent Results section.

In the final section, I discuss the lessons drawn from these micro-level studies. The rainfall variability during the summer monsoon (June to September) in central India (74.5°E–86.5°E; 16.5°N–26.5°N) has changed significantly between 1950 and 2000 ( ). The frequency of days with heavy rainfall (i.e., at least 100 mm/day) increased from 45 to 65 days per year, while the frequency of extreme rainfall events (at least 150 mm rainfall/day) has doubled from 9 to 18 days per year during this period. In contrast, the frequency of days with moderate rainfall (i.e., between 5 and 100 mm/day) has decreased.

Thus, the spread of rainfall over the years during this time frame has increased. Interannual variation in the monsoon cycle is determined by the relative contribution of multiple external and internal air-sea interactions and oscillations, with heavy or less rainfall traditionally resulting in floods or droughts, respectively [ – ]. However, an increased frequency of extreme events and erratic rainfall along with a decline in number of rainy days provide evidence that climate change is occurring []. Study Area A large population of tribal communities resides in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, which is endowed with rich natural resources such as seven river basins, the second highest production of mineral resources in India, and forest areas which cover 30.7% of the state, with a forest area per capita of 0.16 Ha (compared to a national average of 0.07 Ha) [, ]. However, abject poverty, primitive farming methods, Naxalism, and other challenges have caused this tribal belt to lag behind other Indian states in a number of social indicators. The Human Development Index of Madhya Pradesh has consistently ranked the state among the four worst in India over the past few years []. Appendix reports the major education and health indicators of seven districts of Eastern Madhya Pradesh as an illustration of socioeconomic conditions in this part of country, along with percent forest cover in each district.

This part of Madhya Pradesh is characterized by high forest cover, a tribal-dominated population, and large-scale poverty. This study focuses on Mandla, one of these seven districts. The district of Mandla is located in the eastern part of the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh ( ). The district has 49% forest cover (tropical moist deciduous forest), 26% of which is classified as “very dense forest”, 43% “moderately dense forest”, and 31% “open forest” []. The forest area is dominated by teak (Tectona grandis) and sal (Shorea robusta), mixed with other species like haldu (Adina cardifolla) and aonla (Emblica officilanis).

Some of the important NTFPs are tendu leaves (Diospiros melonoxylon), mahua flowers (Madhuca indica) and harra (Terminalia chebula). The district, one of the most underdeveloped in Madhya Pradesh, suffers from widespread, chronic poverty.

Per government estimates, 57% of the total population of the district consists of scheduled tribes [] while the state average is 20% []. Most of the tribals in India are victims of acute poverty and are living in the worst living conditions []. A number of studies highlight chronic poverty and living standards in different tribal groups of India [–]. The district is home to the Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) Gond and Baiga communities.

A PTG is defined as a group of tribals who have the following three characteristics: pre-agricultural level of technology, extremely low level of literacy, and near stagnant or diminishing populations []. Seventy-five such tribes in India are categorized as PTGs and are accorded special government programs for their development. This study comprises a part of a larger research project that attempts to reconcile biodiversity conservation with local livelihoods in Mandla district. This study is based on various case studies documented through regular visits and meetings with a cross-section of local communities, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) exercises, and personal observation. Primary empirical data were collected using household questionnaires. Participatory Rural Appraisals: In 1973, the government of India selected the Kanha Tiger Reserve (KTR) as one of the first nine protected areas (PAs) under “Project Tiger”. KTR, located in Mandla and Balaghat districts, is a renowned PA harboring many endangered faunal species including the tiger (Panthera tigris), Indian Gaur (Bos gaurous), Indian Wild Dog (Cuen alpinues), and vultures (Gyps bengalensis, Gyps tenuirostris).

KTR also has the distinction of harboring the last surviving population of hardground Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi). KTR is comprised of three areas, the National Park core zone (940 km 2), a buffer zone (1,009 km 2), and the satellite Phen Wildlife Sanctuary (110 km 2). One hundred sixty one villages are located in the buffer zone of the Tiger Reserve []. In June 2009, I conducted PRAs in seven of these villages: Indragram, Batwar, Sarhi, Taktua, Mocha, Chappri, and Khatiya.

These villages, selected for convenience of sampling, are also located within four to five miles of each other. This study employs a PRA technique known as “time trend,” in which respondents provide an account of their past and discuss how matters close to them have changed over a period of time [].

First, a list of NTFPs available in nearby forest areas was prepared by villagers. Next, to determine the change in availability of NTFPs over last 15 years, the participants were given 20 coins (the same denomination) representing the amount of NTFP available 15 years earlier. Then, the participants were asked to represent the amount of NTFP available 5 years ago and present availability by withdrawing or adding new coins. For example, if 20, five and two coins represented the amount of a particular NTFP available 15 years ago, five years ago and today, it was inferred that the availability of NTFP decreased from 100% to 25% and then to 10% during said period. This exercise was conducted with villagers more than 40 years of age, and engaged in NTFP collection for at least 30 days (with at least three hours of collection per day) per year. A typical group consisted of 10–12 participants.

A total of 25 such exercises were conducted in all 25 hamlets of seven villages. The role of the author was limited to facilitating the discussion among group participants and documenting the results. Focus group discussions (FGDs) also were conducted with villagers to determine recent impacts of heavy and low rainfall on agriculture, livestock and overall livelihoods in the region. FGDs were conducted in different groups based on gender, social background, and primary occupation.

A typical village has two to four hamlets, with about 25 to 50 households each. The author conducted PRAs in all hamlets of a village. One representative from every household of a hamlet that fulfilled abovementioned criteria (age, time devoted for NTFP collection) was invited to participate in PRA exercises. The exercises were conducted at a public space within the village.

A typical FGD comprised 10 to 12 members and took about 45 minutes. In total, 25 FGDs were conducted in seven villages. Semi-structured Interviews: A five-year demonstration vermicomposting program was launched in 2007 by a non-governmental organization (NGO), the Foundation for Ecological Security (FES), with 35 farmers in ten villages of Mandla district. I conducted a mid-term review of this program in 2009 to assess its impacts. The review was conducted with the farmers through a semi-structured interview addressing four themes: change in agricultural productivity, perceived change in soil quality, procedural problems faced while using vermicompost/ vermiculture, and financial loss or benefit through vermicomposting. Household questionnaires: Household questionnaires were administered in 14 villages covering a total of 580 households to gather socio-economic data on family size, agriculture, livestock, sources of income and expenditures, and migration patterns 1.

Detailed questions on some of these issues were asked. For example, for agriculture, I assessed community perceptions towards indigenous versus modern agricultural practices, using a five-point Likert scale covering four areas: long-term financial benefits, water retention capacity of soil, production stability, and pest attacks.

Data on change in perception level of soil fertility and fertilizer usage over ten years were collected only from farmers more than 40 years of age and actively engaged in agricultural activities for the past 15 years. Only selected and relevant household-level data, listed in, are presented in this paper. In Mandla, agriculture is the primary economic activity undertaken by the community on a large scale. The major crops grown are rice, wheat, maize, mustard, minor millets, linseed, rapeseed, lentil, chick pea, red gram, and black gram.

The net sown area in Mandla is 23%, less than half of the state average of 48% (Appendix ). Average land holding per household in 2000–01 in Mandla was 1.8 ha [].

Per capita gross cropped area in the district is 0.31 ha. Irrigation coverage in the district is poor, and a vast majority of the agricultural area is rain-fed, as only 8% of the net sown area is irrigated. Average fertilizer consumption per ha of gross cropped area is 16 kg/ha, far less than the state average of 55 kg/ha and the country average of 90 kg/ha. Per capita food grain production in the district is 172 kg, less than the state's average of 219 kg per capita. Even though critical factors like net sown area and irrigation facilities are far less than the state average, per capita production of the district is not much less than the state average.

This is primarily due to a regional disparity in productivity within the district. The southwestern part of the district, Haveli and Hirdenagar, covering about one-fifth of total geographical area of district, practices agriculture on commercial scales. This region is endowed with favorable geophysical conditions (e.g., flat topography and black soil []) and sufficient water availability. Commercial agriculture uses modern irrigation facilities (e.g., canals) and high fertilizer dosage to enhance production levels. Meanwhile, most of the district lacks such opportunities, primarily due to chronic poverty, and practices traditional rain-fed agriculture.

In the latter case, gross cropped area is high, but yield per hectare is far less than the former case. Note that the field data used in this study does not come from the resource-rich area. The productivity of major crops of the district, primarily rice and wheat, is below the state average production per hectare (Appendix ). At the district level, agricultural production is sufficient to meet subsistence needs, and a meager part of the produce, primarily rice, is sold in local markets. Data collected from 150 households suggest that only 16% of households surveyed actually sold any agricultural produce in the market (). In a study covering 113 households, Debnath [] found an average annual income in three villages of Mandla of 138 USD, which comes mainly from agricultural output (52%) and wage work (27%).

Due to the lack of industrial development, especially at the small and medium scales, wage-labor opportunities are scarce in the region. Consequently, during the non-agricultural season (i.e., mid-January to April), males migrate to regional industrial hubs located 100–200 miles away from the home village to earn cash income for the family ().

Females generally stay in the village to care for children and family elders, and work under government and non-government sponsored labor schemes to earn cash income. Males prefer not to work under these labor schemes primarily because these opportunities are not available throughout the year, the supply of labor exceeds demand, and the remuneration offered is less than one-third of the wages paid in industrial hubs. Climate change is likely to intensify the variability of weather patterns, leading to a rise in extreme seasonal aberrations, such as increased precipitation and devastating floods in some parts of India and reduced rainfall and prolonged droughts in other areas. The Climate Vulnerability Index (CVI), calculated from social, economic, agriculture, water resource, forest and climate indices, suggests that Mandla is among those districts most vulnerable to climate change []. Agricultural production in Mandla is strongly dependent upon the amount and distribution of rainfall in a year.

The bulk of the rainfall (97%) over a year occurs from June to September, during the south-west monsoon (Appendix ). Thus the intensity and distribution of rains during this period play a pivotal role in determining the success of water-intensive crops like rice. Rainfall intensity and distribution have also varied substantially over the period under study. For example, in June 2007, the district received just 97 mm of rainfall while in the next year it received 602 mm rainfall during the same month (Appendix ). June is a critical period for Indian agriculture, because the sowing of rice occurs during this time and the availability of water has direct implications on success or failure of agricultural crops. Even if a particular monsoon season receives average rainfall and may be considered a normal monsoon overall, the distribution of rainfall from June to September is nonetheless important to agricultural output.

Since 2005, the farming community within the Mandla region has been gradually adopting organic farming under the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) method for rice cultivation. SRI, developed in the 1980s and 1990s in Madagascar, enhances the yields of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) through synergy among several agronomic management practices []. The main components of SRI include transplanting of young seedlings at wide spacing (about 10 inches), water management that keeps the soil moist but not continuously flooded, weeding before canopy closure, and reliance on organic compost. SRI advocates suggest that synergies among these unconventional management practices unlock the physiological potential of rice [].

These modifications to seed preparation and sowing decrease input costs and increase production. SRI can be considered a tool for local adaptation to climate change.

Both the seed required for sowing and water required for irrigation are reduced by 80–90%, while production increases about two-fold. Stronger root systems help the plants to withstand drought and winds. Additionally, since SRI uses homemade organic manure, water retention capacity of the soil increases significantly [–]. Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN), a national-level NGO working on livelihoods programs in the region (Balaghat, Dindori and Mandla districts), promotes SRI among farmers through demonstrations and training. In 2009, it reported a two-fold increase in rice productivity from 1.7 tonnes/ ha to 3.8 tonnes/ ha while working with 111 farmers in Mandla []. SRI addresses food-security needs of the region through higher productivity and more efficient utilization of water resources, which can be put to use in other agricultural and livestock systems.

At the district level, the area under SRI cultivation in the region increased from 35 ha to 791 ha between 2005 and 2009 []. The results of the socio-economic survey described below () show that farmers prefer indigenous over modern agricultural methods. SRI involves locally available inputs like seeds and organic manure and little enhancement to indigenous methods of farming, such as seed treatment and agricultural field preparation. Hence, SRI is more accessible to poor farmers than input-dependent technologies that require greater capital and logistical support []. Despite all these positive results, outreach of SRI is limited primarily by lack of awareness (e.g., from low literacy levels) and deep-rooted faith in traditional agricultural practices. No investigation of the GHG emissions from SRI has been done. However, because rice plots are not flooded under SRI, this method of rice cultivation is expected to reduce methane emissions from flooded rice fields [–].

Other studies have reported that manure has approximately one-fifth as much impact on climate change as synthetic nitrogen fertilizers []. Since SRI uses organic fertilizers, the decreased input of nitrogen fertilizers potentially reduces nitrous oxide emissions, though further investigation is necessary []. Livestock are an important component of agricultural output across most of rural India. Livestock provide high-value, protein-rich animal products, provide draught power and manure, and act as an investment that can be sold for cash when needed. The impact of climate change on livestock is a matter of serious concern, as the majority of livestock in India is in the hands of resource-poor households []. An increase in temperature would negatively impact growth, reproduction and production of livestock, impacting the livelihoods of those who depend upon it []. Oxen, cows, buffalos, pigs, goats and hens are the major types of livestock reared in the region.

Most of the livestock in Mandla are indigenous varieties. Hybrid or cross-bred varieties are generally not preferred, primarily due to greater water and fodder requirements. Currently, feed and fodder shortages are amongst the main problems faced by the communities in Mandla. A significant part of feed is obtained through the husk derived from rice grown in agricultural fields. The remaining fodder requirement is met through open grazing, generally on forest lands. Over the years, this has resulted in extensive pressure on an already depleted forest resource base, limiting animals' access to both quantity and quality of fodder species.

Since 2005, communities have taken steps towards the development of common lands by growing species to augment fodder and fuelwood supplies, which were becoming increasingly scarce in village common lands, including forests. This was possible through technical help from the Madhya Pradesh Forest Department and community mobilization through NGOs like Action for Social Advancement, Foundation for Ecological Security, and World Wide Fund for Nature - India. In one case, in the village of Luhari, locals revegetated a small hillock of 12 ha to meet fuelwood and livestock fodder requirements expected for coming years. Recognizing the problem of fuelwood and fodder scarcity, villagers themselves formulated rules and put into place an institutional mechanism to protect the revegated hillock from overgrazing. Such issues, when discussed at the appropriate village-level forums, resulted in the formulation of rules regulating the use of common property resources (CPRs). The community has recognized the importance of CPRs to their livelihoods, as well as the changes observed over time in availability of CPRs like tree species and water.

NTFPs form a significant part of the annual income of a typical tribal household of central India. On average, NTFPs contribute about 30% of the total cash income per year of a household []. Mahua (Madhuca indica) is an important NTFP, the flowers of which are either distilled and consumed as liquor, or dried and eaten, sometimes with corn-flour, in periods of extreme drought. Other important NTFPs in Mandla include Anogeissus latifolia (used for construction material and animal fodder), Terminalia bellirica (fruit used in curing bronchitis and asthma, and used along with Phyllanthus emblica and Terminalia chebula to prepare a herbal combination), Emblica officinalis (Indian gooseberry, rich source of Vitamin C, oil used as hair-restorer). Results from the PRA with villagers suggest that, over the past few years, unsustainable harvesting of these and other commercially valuable NTFPs has resulted in a sharp decline in their availability (). A complex combination of economic and other factors affect the rate of NTFP extraction. Studies elsewhere in India [–] and other countries [] suggest that the rate of extraction of NTFPs is linked to the degree of agricultural stress.

For example, when low agricultural productivity occurs in a drought year, tribals in Mandla tend to extract and sell more NTFPs to meet the food security needs of their households. Since NTFPs have a ready and accessible local market, income from NTFPs helps compensate for lean harvests. Moreover, the typical flowering season of many of the major NTFPs coincides with the agricultural post-harvest period in March.

Consequently, not only do tribals have sufficient time to go to forest areas to extract NTFPs, but they can also determine the level of extraction based on the results of the agricultural harvest. According to the PRAs conducted within the seven villages of Mandla, since 2005 the tribal communities have observed a significant change in the phenology of local mahua: a gradual shift in fruiting and flowering period from mid-March to mid-February. The shift in the flowering season of mahua reflects a discernible change in the local forest ecology. During mid-February, the agricultural season is about to end and farmers are preoccupied with harvesting their produce. Early onset of mahua flowering during the harvest period leaves less time for the community to collect this NTFP. Such situations have a direct implication for the food security of the region. As the availability of major NTFPs diminishes (), the number of livelihood alternatives for meeting subsistence needs decreases.

At the same time, note that the harvest of mahua has fallen less than that of other NTFPs over the years (). This is due to the user regime of mahua, which has been in place for many generations. Traditionally, the rights to harvest the fruit and flowers of each mahua tree have been assigned to households in the village. This tenure mechanism has resulted in sustainable collection from this species, though the shifting of its flowering season has seriously impacted the livelihoods of tribals. The 25% decrease in availability shown in is due primarily to the shift in flowering season rather than to unsustainable harvesting practices.

In contrast, villagers revealed in their time trends that other NTFPs were harvested at a large scale to fulfill demands of contractors and earn “easy cash.” Thus, except mahua, all other NTFPs listed in were likely harvested through unsustainable practices, resulting in decreased availability over the years. Due to decreasing agricultural productivity, a tribal family needs additional sources of income to ensure the food security of the household. The tribal communities in the study area have developed alternate livelihood options to cope with changing climatic conditions. The household surveys reveal that three-fourths of farmers perceived that soil fertility, based on their agriculture experiences, had degraded over the last ten years ( ).

Presently, one cannot conclude whether climate change has directly affected the soil fertility of the region or not, as the effects of warming on soil composition have been poorly studied []. Correspondingly, fertilizer consumption over the past ten years has increased by more than 50% for more than 40% respondents surveyed ( ). Due to the combination of decreased soil fertility, the consequent increase in expensive fertilizer use, erratic rainfall patterns, and the lack of irrigation facilities, the farming communities needed new low-cost land productivity enhancement techniques. One of the options exercised in the region is organic farming through vermicomposting. The communities are gradually adopting organic farming to enhance land productivity, improve edaphic quality, and earn cash income through the sale of vermiculture and vermicompost. Local purchasers of vermiculture and vermicompost often anticipate adopting this form of farming and want to see results from vermicompost before setting up their own composting operations. Results from the midterm review of the vermicomposting program in 2009 revealed that out of 35 farmers, the majority of farmers were practicing vermicomposting for self-consumption ().

However, fourteen farmers were actively selling vermicompost and vermiculture to fellow farmers living within the same or neighboring villages. One of these farmers, practicing vermicomposting at a large scale due to resource availability (e.g., land, water and initial investment), realized an income of 275 USD in a six month cycle. Since such initiatives are only two years old, the change in edaphic quality has not yet been measured empirically. However, the farmers claim that the moisture retention capacity of the soil has increased moderately since adoption of vermicompost.

Horticulture is another option for tribal communities to adapt to changing climatic conditions and tackle to increased climate-induced risk to traditional income-generating activities. Horticulture development is a long-term investment, as well as an expansion and diversification of the “livelihoods basket” of a tribal family to cope with fluctuating agricultural and livestock productivity.

Tribals have traditionally grown fruit-bearing trees in the backyards of their households to meet household-level needs. However, due to central government schemes (e.g., National Horticulture Mission, Nandan Phalodyan) and community receptiveness towards block plantations of horticulture tree species, the region has witnessed a gradual shift towards commercial production in the past five years.

Note that if practiced on too small a commercial scale, horticulture requires significant effort and can be a risky proposition due to its significant vulnerability to water scarcity. During the summer season, when the water available to households is most scarce, devoting water towards horticulture is far more difficult and critical.

To cope, farmers have used innovative methods to ensure water availability for horticulture. For example, discarded hospital saline bottles were modified to act as drip irrigation to increase the efficiency of water usage and ensure an uninterrupted supply with minimal loss during the first three years of plantation. After three years, the root systems of the plants develop sufficiently to reduce significantly their mortality rate. Another low-cost method to ensure moisture availability for horticultural trees, especially during the initial three years of plantation, has been the placement of small-sized rocks near the plant, within a half-meter radius.

The rocks assist in moisture retention by reducing evaporation from porous soils, even during the water-scarce summer, which helps the young plant to survive. Along with horticulture, commercial vegetable cultivation has been increasingly used to ensure an adequate food supply for the household.

Traditionally grown in home gardens, vegetables have an established market, and yield more income with lower inputs in a relatively shorter time frame compared to grain crops like rice and wheat. Such benefits, along with financial subsidies from the state agriculture department and technical support from NGOs mentioned earlier, have motivated the farming community to take up vegetable production, starting by initially cultivating less than half a hectare per farmer. However, water remains a critical factor in vegetable cultivation because of their relatively high sensitivity to water stress compared to rice and wheat.

Thus, a limited set of farmers who have access to sources of irrigation such as canals and tube wells, or have informal arrangements with owners of private wells, have been able to cultivate vegetables. For this reason, scalability of the area under vegetable cultivation beyond half a hectare per farmer has not been possible despite strong interest among farmers in the region 2. The case study of Gadia village further illustrates the challenges of establishing alternative sources of livelihood. All 47 families of this village were relocated here in the late 1980s due to the submergence of their traditional land by the state government for dam construction. All families belong to the Baiga primitive tribal group.

In 2008, a group of eight villagers began vegetable cultivation on a patch of submerged land of Matiyari dam's reservoir, 0.75 miles away from the village boundary. During the summer season, the reservoir water level decreases significantly, allowing vegetable cultivation on a patch with soil quality far superior to the agricultural fields of the village. Water availability for irrigation was not an issue given the close proximity to the reservoir. The farmers pledged to use only organic manure as usage of fertilizers could potentially harm the fish in the reservoir, another important livelihood option for fishermen belonging to this and neighboring villages. Vegetable cultivation was timed for April harvest, the peak time for vegetable prices, in order to maximize profits. Thus, an alternate livelihood option was added to the portfolio of this tribal group by utilizing an unused piece of land. In their interviews, the eight-member group reported earning USD 320 by selling the produce in the local market and consumed vegetables worth USD 160 over a period of six months.

These villagers were so enthusiastic about the returns from vegetable cultivation that they decided to undertake it again the next year. In 2009, the group prepared the same area for vegetable cultivation. However, soon after the seeds were sown, unexpected autumn rains destroyed the crop. This heavy rainfall was entirely unexpected based on recent historical experience: note that 118 mm of precipitation fell in November 2009, whereas nearly no rainfall had occurred during this time of year since at least 2004 (Appendix ). This case clearly highlights that some adaptation strategies in a predominantly rain-fed agricultural region are acutely vulnerable to unpredictable climatic fluctuations. Though adapting to climate change will require diversification of local livelihood portfolios, selecting alternative livelihood options less vulnerable to changing climatic conditions would enhance their probability of success and long-term sustainability.

The cases described above highlight climate-induced changes experienced by agricultural tribal communities in Central India. With only 8% of cultivation areas irrigated in Mandla, rainfall and temperature variations have a significant effect on agricultural productivity. Where agriculture is practiced using traditional (i.e., non-mechanized) methods to meet subsistence needs, the role of rainfall patterns becomes more critical.

Due to poverty and heavy traditional dependence on cultivation and harvest of natural resources, tribal communities often find it difficult to adopt non-farm activities. Indigenous and locally available agricultural resources and practices have a higher probability of acceptance by tribals.

Livestock provides crucial agriculture support, although sustaining livestock has gradually become a challenge due to limited water and fodder availability. Due to the great proportion of total geographical area under forests, the role of forests in tribal livelihoods cannot be ignored. However, the yield of major NTFPs has decreased substantially during the past two decades, primarily due to increased rates of extraction linked to increased agricultural stress. To cope with these changes in traditional livelihood systems, tribals have explored alternate livelihood options like horticulture and vegetable cultivation.

These alternate livelihood options were practiced on a small-scale experimental basis with mixed results. These findings suggest that: (a) critical inter-linkages exist between forest, agriculture and water resources; (b) short, medium and long term planning are necessary; and (c) strategies for adapting to climate change must incorporate complex inter-relationships among different natural resource components. In India, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has historically resulted in mixed outcomes for all the stakeholders involved. There are numerous examples documenting both the success and failure of institutional attempts at CBNRM [–]. However, we cannot ignore the need for stronger democratic institutions for supporting community resilience to the livelihood impacts of climate change.

I do not propose that village-based institutions are the sole solution for tackling climate change in tribal dominated areas or elsewhere. Nevertheless, institutions, such as village meetings, offer an open and democratic platform for discussing common issues arising out of climate change.

This paper raises serious questions about the future management of natural resources, especially water and forests, in central India. Although the tribal community of the region has taken a few steps to cope with changing climatic conditions, most of these steps have been at the local level and have primarily focused on diversifying livelihoods. Moreover, in spite of these small improvements, all major components of tribal livelihoods (agriculture, livestock, NTFPs) will continue to be directly dependent upon water and forest resources for the foreseeable future.

Thus, biodiversity conservation, to the extent that it impacts forest health and water availability, is of prime importance for local resilience to climate change. Like the adaptation strategies described above, government agencies and local NGOs, acting with local community participation, can play a strategic role in initiating conservation measures. It is beyond the scope of this paper to document the loss of floral and faunal species in the region over the past few decades.

However, a study of species' habitat loss could provide an improved understanding of complex inter-relationships among different natural resource components. Presently, the future of tribal communities is difficult to predict - whether traditional livelihood systems will succeed or the role of alternate livelihood options will gain more importance; whether farm-based alternate livelihood options will gradually mature and contribute significantly in tribals' “livelihood basket”, or non-farm based livelihood options will emerge. Regardless, climate change surely will critically impact food security, forest structure and function, and human welfare for these subsistence communities.

This article is based on a presentation at the International Society of Tropical Foresters Annual Conference, “Tropical Forests Under a Changing Climate: Linking Impacts, Mitigation, and Adaptation,” February 11–13, 2009, Yale University. The author is extremely grateful to Dr. Omprakash, Faculty, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India, Dr. Bhattacharya, Faculty, GGS Indraprastha University, New Delhi, India, two anonymous reviewers, and the journal editors for their useful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. 1 This study draws from several separate surveys, using only those surveys which are relevant to the discussion here. Though a total of 580 households were surveyed, not all households participated in all surveys.

Sample sizes for specific surveys are listed in. 2 Spacing between horticultural trees is between 3–5 meters, whereas with vegetables it is as little as 0.22 meters. Moreover, a plot of horticultural trees may have 25–40 trees, while vegetable plants number in hundreds within a small plot of land. Thus, the tight spacing and sheer number of plants preclude the replication of water-saving methods from horticulture to vegetable cultivation.

Simplified climatic map of Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa consists of the and the in the north (yellow), the (light green) and the (dark green) of, and the arid (yellow) and the ' south coast (olive) of. The numbers shown correspond to the dates of all artifacts associated with the. Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area of the continent of that lies south of the. According to the, it consists of all that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara.

It contrasts with, whose are part of the within the.,, and are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa, but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world. The is the transitional zone in between the Sahara and the of the and farther south the of.

Since probably, the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the in Sudan, though the Nile was blocked by the river's. The explains how and (including ) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond. African periods are associated with a 'wet Sahara' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed. The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority; a vestige of colonialism, which some say, divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity. Of Africa, showing the ecological break between the of North Africa and the Horn of Africa (red), the of the Sahel and areas surrounding deserts (orange) and the of Central and Western Africa (blue). Southern Africa has a transition to or (green), and more desert or semi-arid regions, centered on Namibia and Botswana.

Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of. And the in particular are considered.

• The shoots across all of Africa at a latitude of about 10° to 15° N. Countries that include parts of the Sahara Desert proper in their northern territories and parts of the Sahel in their southern region include,,, and. The Sahel has a. • South of the Sahel, there is a belt of, (, ) widening to include most of and in the east (). • The globally includes along the coast but can be found much more in the interior, contrasting with savannah and in the interior of Ethiopia. • encompasses stretching along the southern coast of West Africa and across most of Central Africa (the ) west of the • The are an ecoregion of,, and.

• The ecosystem is located in northwestern Tanzania and extends to southwestern. • The includes the surrounded by a belt of semi-desert. • The is a ecoregion of.

• The is a semi-desert in western South Africa. Stone chopping tool from According to, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest, and, but they had adopted a locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago. By 3 million years ago several species had developed throughout, and.

They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. Habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. Habilis probably did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as.

Roughly 1.8 million years ago, first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. The brain later grew in size, and H. Erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. Erectus mastered the art of making fire.

They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonize the entire, and perhaps later on giving rise to. Although some recent writers suggest that, a H. Habilis, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. Georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. Erectus species. The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000 years ago.

Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion launched the colonization of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world.

This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence. After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the, the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of that were strung across the desert. The was in full motion by 500 BCE with being a major economic force for its establishment. It is thought that the camel was first brought to after the conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade. Central Africa [ ].

Queen of the and kingdoms Archaeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10 000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been to the first millennium BCE. Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of,,,,, and.

Following the into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt. Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the in the 16th century.

The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties. The existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at, under the king title, Manikongo. Other significant states and peoples included the, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the,,,, and the.

Horn of Africa [ ]. Of, The spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the. Located in northern and, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean. Growing from the proto-Aksumite period circa the 4th century BCE, it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic to cover the graves of their kings, such as.

The later, established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock-hewn structures include the. In, city-states flourished such as, and that competed with the, and for the wealthy –– trade.

In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the, which excelled in and fortress building, the, whose General was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during of the, and the, whose military dominance forced governors of the north of the city of to pay tribute to the Sultan. In the late 19th century after the had ended, sailed with their armies to the. The armies in Somalia alarmed the leader, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars known as the. Southern Africa [ ]. : Tower in the Great Enclosure Settlements of -speaking peoples, who were -using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-day are believed to date from around 1050.

The southernmost group was the, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the in today's. Was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between the and rivers of in the territory of modern-day and. Its old capital was located. In 1487, became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a was established at the by on behalf of the.

For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a possession. Seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, ostensibly to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French but also to use in particular as a stop on the route to and.

It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the in 1806. The was a Southern African tribal state in what is now in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the. During the 1950s and early 1960s, most Sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule. Southeast Africa [ ]. The south of in On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with and traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African. The that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many members of the Bantu.

With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of (particularly ) and – a seaboard referred to as the – the Bantu contains many as a consequence of these interactions. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of, and referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to the name for. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the and kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania. During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.

Sculpture, terracotta, The is a major migration movement originating in West Africa around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE. The city-state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the. The is known from a type of figure found in Nigeria, dating to between 500 BCE and 200 CE. There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on, including the and the,, the and the subsequent. They built stone structures like in, but mainly constructed in. The is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.

Fortifications were significant in West Africa; the were one of the largest man-made structures in the world. In the forest zone, several states and empires emerged. The arose in the 16th century in modern-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. The, was established by the in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest-king who wielded no military power.

Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of and in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700–900 and 1400 respectively, and center of culture. The Yoruba's built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous being. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the 9th–11th century whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century and was one of the greatest Empires of African history documented all over the world.

Their dominance reached as far as the well-known city of Eko which was named by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and the, which is the largest man-made structure in the world. In the 18th century, the Oyo and the were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria, with Great Britain, France and Portugal shipping the majority of the slaves. Following the, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior.

In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the was chartered under the leadership of Sir. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the, the foremost world power at the time. By 1960, most of the region achieved independence from colonial rule. Demographics [ ]. Fertility rates and life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects, the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 995,694,907 in 2016.

The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 1.5 and 2 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km 2 compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas. Sub-Saharan African countries top the with 40 of the highest 50, all with greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except and. More than 40% of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in, with the exception of South Africa.

Drummers () Sub-Saharan Africa displays the most linguistic diversity of any region in the world. This is apparent from the number of languages spoken. The region contains over 1,000 languages, which is around 1/6 of the world's total. Afroasiatic [ ] With the exception of the extinct (a ) of, Afro-Asiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the of ( and ) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the of north eastern.

The distribution of the within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger).

The branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the branch of the family, in the form of, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world.

Are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The branch is distributed in Central and West Africa., its most widely spoken language, serves as a in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad). Khoisan [ ] The several families lumped under the term include languages indigenous to and, though some, such as the, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the. In Southern Africa, their speakers are the and (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the and. Niger–Congo [ ] The family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are such as, and, However, others such as and Wolof are not.

A major branch of Niger–Congo languages is the, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family put together. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though,, and groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts of such as the, and southern., a Bantu language with many, and other Middle Eastern and South Asian, developed as a for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also 'San', closely related to, but distinct from ') have long been present.

The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa. Nilo-Saharan [ ] The are concentrated in the upper parts of the and rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the,, and peoples and in West and Central Africa among the, and.

The is also a member of this family. Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of speakers in millions. Central Africa •, • •: 12 •: 5+ • • • •: 5+ •: 5+ • • • • • Horn of Africa • • •: 20+ •: 5 • •: 10–15 •: 30–35 •. The in, In the mid-2010s, private capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa – primarily from the, private-sector investment portfolios, and remittances – began to exceed official development assistance.

As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. Between 2011 and 2015, the economic growth rate of the average nation in Africa is expected to surpass that of the average nation in Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world.

According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013, with a rate of 5.2% forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.

Energy and power [ ]. Main article: Oil production by country (with other key actors of African or oil economy) Rank Area bb/day Year Like. _ W: World 855 est.

01 E: Russia 99 est. 02 Ar: Saudi Arb 92 est.

04 As: Libya 47 est. Iran 10 Af: Nigeria/Africa 23 est. Norway 15 Af: Algeria 21 est. 16 Af: Angola 19 est. 17 Af: Egypt 18 est. 27 Af: Tunisia 6 est.

Australia 31 Af: Sudan 4 est. Ecuador 33 Af: Eq.Guinea 3 est. Vietnam 38 Af: DR Congo 2 est. 39 Af: Gabon 2 est.

40 Af: Sth Africa 1 est. 45 Af: Chad 1 est. Germany 53 Af: Cameroon est. France 56 E: France 60 Af: Ivory Coast est. _ Af: Africa 107 Russia Source:, World Facts Book >Oil exporters. As of 2009, fifty percent of Africa is rural with no access to electricity.

Africa generates 47 GW of electricity, less than 0.6% of the global market share. Many countries are affected by power shortages.

Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to build additional generation capacity of at least 20,165 MW by 2014. The region has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7% has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure. African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix.

Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million. [ ] Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme. With electrification numbers, Sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar electrical potential.

Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential. China is promising to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Vampire Diaries Season 4 Episode 7 Torrent Download on this page. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China-Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister Xu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003. The (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent-wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the (AfDB) and the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund.

These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and/or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, involve at least one country in Sub-Saharan Africa. Media [ ] Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa. Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population.

Countries such as,, and boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries – Burundi,,,, and – still have a penetration of less than 10%. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive. Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise. Television is the second major source of information.

Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight percent have television, a total of 62 million. But those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.

Infrastructure [ ]. Skyline of, According to researchers at the, the lack of infrastructure in many represents one of the most significant limitations to and achievement of the (MDGs). Less than 40% of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all-season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2% of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1% of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2–3% of GDP found in fast-growing emerging economies. Although the level of effort is high relative to the size of Africa's economies, it remains little in absolute terms, with low-income countries spending an average of about US$7 per capita per year. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.

Downtown, Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for (ICT) investments, over 40% for generation and 80% for roads. In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas (ODA) and yet others by private investors.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion. In, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in and and, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending.

The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor. Oil and minerals [ ]. From the,, The region is a major exporter to the world of,,,,,,,, and.

South Africa is a major exporter of manganese as well as Chromium. A 2001 estimate is that 42% of the world's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of, with 80% of the total world's annual mine production and 88% of the world's platinum reserve. Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33% of the world's bauxite with Guinea as the major supplier. Zambia is a major producer of copper. Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from Congo is very small but has 80% of proven reserves.

Sub-saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30% of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy.

Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008. The region produces 49% of the world's. By 2015, it is estimated that 25% of North American oil will be from Sub-Saharan Africa, ahead of the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10% of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East.

This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations.

Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in Sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else.

Of all new sources of oil, ⅓ are in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture [ ]. Agricultural fields in 's Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.

Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included,,,,,,, and pearl. Other domesticated crops included,,,,,, and. Domesticated animals include the and the. The Naute Fruit Farm at the outside of, Agriculture represents 20% to 30% of GDP and 50% of exports. In some cases, 60% to 90% of the labor force are employed in agriculture. Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming.

This has made agricultural activity vulnerable to climate change and global warming. Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups. Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco. The says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit.

There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year. Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in Sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries. Early in 2009, highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in Sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol. Education [ ].

The 's Earth Science building in, Forty percent of African scientists live in countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada. This has been described as an African. According to, the South African Minister of Science and Technology, even with the drain enrollments in Sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7%, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world. In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university level degrees abroad has increased. In some OECD countries, like the United States, Sub-Saharan Africans are the. The in, According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, and.

However, the literacy rates in Sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in (90.7%; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in (27%). Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3% of their GDP on science and technology on in 2007. This represents an increase from US$1.8 billion in 2002 to US$2.8 billion in 2007, a 50% increase in spending. The Komfo Anokye Hospital in, In 1987, the conference organised by the was held in, the capital of, and helped reshape the health policy of Sub-Saharan Africa. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services.

A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. In 2011, Sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69% of all people living with worldwide.

In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV/AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the campaign, and the 's outreach programs. According to a 2013 special report issued by the (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retroviral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone.: 15 The number of AIDS-related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 percent less than the number in 2005. The number of new HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 percent less than the number in 2001. Estimated in% of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2011.

Is an endemic illness in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur. Routine immunization has been introduced in order to prevent. ('river blindness'), a common cause of, is also endemic to parts of the region.

More than 99% of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein. In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease. Is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa.

However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990. Additionally, the in July 2003 ratified the, which pledges to prohibit (FGM). National health systems vary between countries. In, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the and. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors-pooled Health Fund.

Religion [ ]. Mosque in, African countries below the Sahara are largely, while those above the Sahara, in North Africa, are predominantly. There are also Muslim majorities in parts of the Horn of Africa ( and ) and in the Sahel and Sudan regions (,,,, and ), as well as significant Muslim communities in and, and on the Swahili Coast ( and ). Is the only country in to have a majority. Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among -speakers is a belief in a creator God; ancestor spirits; territorial spirits; evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits; priest of territorial spirits. New world religions such as,, and, would be derived from this world view.

Among speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among -speakers is, the belief in one's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic of is comparable to the latter world view.

Is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance-dance; trance-healers. Traditional religions in Sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics.

Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos.

And is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming). Divination and its four digit binary code West Africa • • (Ghana) • • (Nigeria, Cameroon) • (Nigeria, Cameroon) • and (Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania) • (Nigeria, Benin) Central Africa • (South Sudan) • (South Sudan) • (Congo) • (Congo) • (Congo) Southeast Africa • (eastern Kenya) • (Kenya, Tanzania) Southern Africa • • (Zambia) • (Malawi) • (South Africa) Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks.

A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa.

[ ] Culture [ ] Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities and villages, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far out weigh an individual needs and achievements. Basically, an individual's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. “An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle.

Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister”. This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. “Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions.' Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally “men do the heavy work of clearing and plowing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family’s food”. Despite their work in the fields women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures.

“When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two”. A traditional polyrhythmic Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. It is partially true.

A large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of and languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition.

Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspect of Sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as,,,,, and music.

But Sub-Saharan music involves a lot of music with strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern sahel and along the nile, among the, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the, we see extensive use of string instruments. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork. Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influence by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans.

Popular styles are in and, in, in, in, in the, in, and in. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity. Late 19th early 20th centuries.

Female (left) and male Vertical styles. The oldest in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years in the Cave of Pigeons in, eastern Morocco. The second oldest abstract form of art and the oldest rock art is found in the at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world. Although Sub-Saharan African art is very diverse there are some common themes.

One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for.

Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements.

Fourth, art that serves a practical function, utilitarian. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales.

Before the discovery of fractal geometry], Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal's first president, referred to this as 'dynamic symmetry.' , the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D’Arcy Thompson. Lastly, Sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerated the head of a sculpture in relations to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom. The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of artist like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Jacques Lipchitz. A plate of accompanied with Sub-Saharan African cuisine like everything about Africa is very diverse.

A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region. West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey.

Dishes include,,,, foutou, and banku. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers,,, and. Grains include millet, sorghum, and rice, usually in the sahel, are incorporated. Oils include palm oil and shea butter(sahel). One finds recipes that mixes fish and meat. Beverages are palm wine(sweet or sour) and millet beer.

Roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing are all cooking techniques. And Southeast African cuisine especially those of the reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include, sukumi wiki, and halva. Spices such as curry, saffron, cloves, cinnamon, pomegranate juice, cardamon, ghee, and sage are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includes cattle, sheep, and goats, but is rarely eaten since its viewed as currency and wealth. In the, pork and non-fish seafood is avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians.

Maize (corn) is a major staple. Cornmeal is used to make, a popular dish with different names.

Is used to make or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include,, lentils, rice, banana, leafy greens, chiles, peppers, coconut milk and tomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), chai tea, fermented beer from banana or millet.

Cooking techniques include roasting and marinating. This meal, consisting of injera and several kinds of wat (stew), is typical of and cuisine. Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that. Ugali and fufu are eaten in the region.

Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops include plantains, cassava, peanuts, chillis, and okra. Meats include beef, chicken, and sometimes exotic meats called bush meat (antelope, warthog, crocodile). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects.

Mushroom is sometimes used as a meat substitute. Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising, sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include braai (barbecue meat), sadza, bogobe, (fermented cornmeal), milk products (buttermilk, yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and cabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), milk, chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay community can be seen its use of curries, sambals, pickled fish, fish stews, chutney, and samosa.

European influences can be seen in cuisines like (dried beef strips), potjies (stews of maize, onions, tomatoes), French wines, and crueler or koeksister (sugar syrup cookie). Clothing [ ]. Cloth patterns Like most of the world, Sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western-style clothing. In some country like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional.

Cotton seems to be the dominant material. In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing.

Shemma, shama, and kuta are types of Ethiopian clothing. Are cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing.

Kitenges are similar to kangas and kikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side.,,, and are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In, and, kitenge is known as Chitenge.

One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth, an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis).

On Madagascar a type of draped cloth called is worn. In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the and style of clothing are featured.

Is created by the of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from the word kenten which means basket. It is sometimes used to make and. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.

In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used. In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth.

Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant.

Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads. The in, Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years.

South Africa hosted the, a first for a Sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the for the sixth time, which is the current record for a Sub-Saharan team. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for Sub-Saharan African football. Famous Sub-Saharan football stars include,,,,,,,,,,,, and.

The most talented Sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games. The is also popular in Sub-Saharan Africa. The governs rugby games in the region.

South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in and in. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in the. Boxing is also a popular sport.

The first world champion to come out of Sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as,,,, and.

Cricket has a following. The is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies.

In 2003 the was held in South Africa, first time it was held in Sub-Saharan Africa. Over the years, and have produced many notable long-distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent.

Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the. Famous runners include,,, and. Geo-political map of Africa divided for ethnomusicological purposes, after, 1959. Only seven African countries are not geopolitically a part of Sub-Saharan Africa:,,,,, (claimed by Morocco) and; they form the of, which also makes up the largest bloc of the.

Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although a long-standing member of the, Sudan has around 30% non-Arab populations in the west (,, ), far north () and south (, ). And only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders.

All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within Sub-Saharan Africa. Shazam Mp3 Downloader Apk. Central Africa [ ]. (defunct) • cap. English ECCAS () • (also in SADC) cap. Portuguese • (also in EAC) cap. French • (also in SADC) cap. Kurundi, French • (also in EAC) cap.

(RF) lang., French, English • cap. Portuguese CEMAC () • cap. English, French • cap. (FCFA) lang., French • cap. French, Arabic • cap.

French • cap. Spanish, French • cap. French East Africa [ ].

Geographic East Africa, including the UN subregion and East African Community Horn of Africa [ ] • cap. (Fdj) lang., • cap. (Nfk) ' lang.' , Arabic, Italian, English • cap. (So.Sh) lang., Arabic Southeast Africa [ ] EAC • (also in ECCAS) cap.

(FBu) lang., French • cap. (KSh) lang., English • (also in ECCAS) cap.

(RF) lang., French, English • (also in SADC) cap. (x/y) lang., English • cap.

(USh) lang., English Southern Africa [ ]. (SADC) SADC (Southern African Development Community) • (also in ECCAS) cap. Portuguese • cap.

(P) lang., English • cap. (CF) lang., Arabic, French • cap. (L)(M) lang., English • cap. (MGA) lang., French • cap.

English • cap. English • cap. Portuguese • cap. English • cap. (SR)(SRe) lang., English, French • cap.,, cur.

(L)(E) lang., English • cap. English • cap. English Sudan [ ] Depending on classification is often not considered part of Sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa. Arabic and English West Africa [ ].